The hypothalamus and pituitary gland

The hypothalamus and pituitary gland:-

The pituitary gland is called the “master gland” but it is under the control of the hypothalamus. Together, they control many other endocrine functions. They secrete a number of hormones, especially several which are important to the female menstural cycle, pregnancy, birth, and lactation (milk production). These include follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which stimulates development and maturation of a follicle in one of a woman’s ovaries, and leutinizing hormone (LH), which causes the bursting of that follicle (= ovulation) and the formation of a corpus luteum from the remains of the follicle.
There are a number of other hypothalamus and pituitary hormones which affect various target organs.
One non-sex hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary is antidiuretic hormone or ADH. This hormone helps prevent excess water excretion by the kidneys. Ethanol inhibits the release of ADH and can, thus, cause excessive water loss. That’s also part of the reason why a group of college students who go out for pizza and a pitcher of beer need to make frequent trips to the restrooms. Diuretics are chemicals which interfere with the production of or action of ADH so the kidneys secrete more water. Thus diuretics are often prescribed for people with high blood pressure, in an attempt to decrease blood volume.
Another group of non-sex hormones that many people have heard of is the endorphins, which belong to the category of chemicals known as opiates and serve to deaden our pain receptors. Endorphins, which are chemically related to morphine, are produced in response to pain. The natural response to rub an injured area, such as a pinched finger, helps to release endorphins in that area. People who exercise a lot and push their bodies “until it hurts” thereby stimulate the production of endorphins. It is thought that some people who constantly over-exercise and push themselves too much may actually be addicted to their own endorphins which that severe exercise regime releases.

White Vinegar

White vinegar, which is actually clear vinegar, is made from allowing a distilled alcohol to undergo acid fermentation. During this process, oxygen combines with chemicals in a substance in a way that reduces the atom content of the substance. When a distilled alcohol is oxidized, its chemical components change, and it becomes much more sour, and frequently, quite unpleasant to taste.

Combining the chemical compound acetic acid to water can also make white vinegar. This second type is very sour, and is more commonly used to clean and disinfect, than for food. In fact, much of white vinegar, especially when sold in gallon units, is not used in cooking. People tend to prefer red vinegars or apple cider vinegar for cooking purposes.

The one exception exists in rice vinegar, which is almost exclusively used for cooking. Some types of rice vinegar are white vinegar or clear, and are an important ingredient in many Asian recipes. Two type of rice white vinegar exist: that made from fermented white rice, or that produced from sake.

As a cleaning substance, white vinegar can provide an excellent and eco-friendly alternative to chemical substances. Many people swear by using white vinegar to clean windows. For this purpose, white vinegar and water are placed in a spray bottle, spritzed onto windows and then wiped clean with paper towels or newspaper.

White vinegar is also useful in eliminating strong odors. It can be helpful especially in getting rid of cat urine smells, and is safe to use both indoors and out. Unlike some of the products on the market for eliminating urine smells, white vinegar does not contain ammonia, which can in some cases actually encourage cats to continue to urinate in areas you would wish them to avoid.

Some people use white vinegar as a stain remover, or during the rinse cycle in dishwashers. Others swear by its grease cutting powers when handwashing dishes. Durable medical parts like inhalers or tubing can also be sterilized with boiling water and white vinegar, and people may also use it to clean baby bottles. If you do plan to use vinegar on fabrics, you should do a test on a part of the fabric that won’t be seen to be certain it won’t bleach it.

Another helpful cleaning use for white vinegar is running it through electric coffee makers that require a cleaning. You can either employ a straight white vinegar or water-vinegar blend to minimize staining, and mineral deposit build-up in the coffee’s water reservoir. Just don’t forget to follow up with a few plain water rinses afterward, or your first pot of coffee will taste terrible!

The Brain

The brain is the primary organ of the central nervous system in almost all animals, including humans. It collects information from sensory organs and from the body’s nerve cells, which in vertebrates are linked to the brain through the spinal cord. Brain cells process this information in order to decide and execute actions, functions the brain can perform millions of times in one second. In humans, the brain also initiates language, reasoning, and creativity. The brain is the subject of continued study, and some brain functions are still not fully understood.

The brain, like the rest of the nervous system, is composed of nerve cells, also called neurons. Unique among cells, neurons are designed to transmit information among themselves and other cells with electrical and chemical impulses. Neurons have great length for this purpose; a single cell can stretch more than 3 feet (1 meter) in human beings. In the brain, these cells form a dense network to transmit and process information rapidly. In primitive creatures, the brain may be no more than a wide spot on the spinal cord. In advanced creatures such as humans, 100 billion neurons combine to create a complex organ weighing more than 3 pounds (14 kg).

In humans, the brain has several sections, each of which controls different physical or mental functions. At the top of the spinal column, the brain stem regulates involuntary functions such as breathing and circulation and connects the spinal cord’s nerves with the rest of the brain. Nearby structures called the thalamus and hypothalamus deal with pain, the sex drive, and sleep. Motor functions and balance are maintained by the cerebellum, also located at the base of the brain.

The main structure of the human brain is the cerebrum, divided into right and left hemispheres. Much of this structure is composed of millions of interlaced axons, the parts of nerve cells responsible for transferring information. This area, collectively known as white matter, coordinates sensory input, hormone function, and some simple emotions. The outermost layer of the brain, the cerebral cortex, deals with complex tasks such as language, memory, and advanced thought or emotion.

The cerebral cortex is composed of neurons. Their gray color in preserved brains inspired the phrase gray matter. Axons from these cells make up the underlying white matter. Any cell or axon can communicate with any other through connections called synapses, electrical signals in the neuron that set off chemical signals, which in turn create other electrical signals in the receiving neuron. This process, repeated millions of times a second over trillions of possible synapses, accounts for the brain’s functioning. The precise details of this functioning are the subject of continuing scientific study.

Electroshock Therapy & Depression

Electroshock therapy, or electro convulsive therapy (ECT) works by administering an electrical current to the brain, which induces a convulsion or seizure of the nerve cells in the brain. This is a procedure done under general anesthesia to treat severe incidences of depression, or incidences of psychotic behavior that might be manifested by bipolar condition. Unlike in films where “shock therapy” if often depicted as a thing forced on patients, this is not the case. There are only a few reasons why electroshock therapy might be used without patient consent, including depression so severe that a person is at constant risk for suicide or is no longer eating or drinking, and usually if the person will not or does not respond to drug treatment for their condition.

While electroshock therapy can help end an incident of severe depression or psychosis, it is not a cure. Patients usually require more than one treatment, more often between six to twelve treatments to end a depressive episode. These treatments have between 70-90% rate of effectiveness in ending that specific episode, but this does not mean depression is gone. Of patients undergoing electroshock therapy, a full 50% will at a later point have another bout of severe depression and may require treatment again. Some studies, which focus on the use of both ECT and medication, suggest that full-on psychosis or severe depression is less likely to recur if a person is on suitable medications after the treatment.

There are some risks to electroshock therapy. Though the seizures it causes are thought mild, it can be associated with some memory loss, especially dating to a few weeks before and after treatment begins and ends, and some people feel very confused upon waking from the treatment. There is no evidence to suggest that permanent brain damage occurs from effectively administered ECT. However, many feel that it is still difficult to gauge this, and see electroshock therapy as a treatment of last resort for patients whose symptoms are not resolved through medication. Additionally, any procedure requiring general anesthesia has some inherent risks.

Some people are not good candidates for electroshock therapy. Women who are pregnant generally don’t undergo the procedure. Patients usually have full physical evaluations before undergoing ECT, and for minors or those in custodial care, every attempt is made to inform caretakers of risks versus benefits.

The procedure isn’t recommended for everyone, and some recommendations prior to administering ECT include making sure the patient is currently undergoing a massive major depressive, manic or psychotic episode, that has not responded to at least two separate medication trials. Special care is taken when ECT is recommended for adolescents, and memory assessments before and after treatment are recommended. ECT usually is not recommended for pre-adolescents.

This Is How We ... Study

Tmrw I have biology midterm exam & I feel so distracted. Instead of studying, this is what I did:

Aesop's Fables - The Man and the Lion

The Man and the Lion

A MAN and a Lion traveled together through
the forest. They soon began to boast of their
respective superiority to each other in
strength and prowess. As they were disputing,
they passed a statue carved in stone,
which represented "a Lion strangled by a
Man." The traveler pointed to it and said:
"See there! How strong we are, and how we
prevail over even the king of beasts." The
Lion replied: "This statue was made by one
of you men. If we Lions knew how to erect
statues, you would see the Man placed under
the paw of the Lion." One story is good, till
another is told.

Aesop's Fables - The Flies and the Honey-Pot

The Flies and the Honey-Pot

A NUMBER of Flies were attracted to a jar of
honey which had been overturned in a
housekeeper's room, and placing their feet in
it, ate greedily. Their feet, however, became
so smeared with the honey that they could
not use their wings, nor release themselves,
and were suffocated. Just as they were expiring,
they exclaimed, "O foolish creatures that
we are, for the sake of a little pleasure we
have destroyed ourselves." Pleasure bought
with pains, hurts.

Aesop's Fables - The Tortoise and the Eagle

The Tortoise and the Eagle

A TORTOISE, lazily basking in the sun, complained
to the sea-birds of her hard fate, that
no one would teach her to fly. An Eagle, hovering
near, heard her lamentation and demanded
what reward she would give him if
he would take her aloft and float her in the
air. "I will give you," she said, "all the riches
of the Red Sea." "I will teach you to fly then,"
said the Eagle; and taking her up in his
talons he carried her almost to the clouds
suddenly he let her go, and she fell on a lofty
mountain, dashing her shell to pieces. The
Tortoise exclaimed in the moment of death:
"I have deserved my present fate; for what
had I to do with wings and clouds, who can
with difficulty move about on the earth?' If
men had all they wished, they would be often
ruined.

Aesop's Fables - The Ass, the Fox, and the Lion

The Ass, the Fox, and the Lion

THE ASS and the Fox, having entered into
partnership together for their mutual protection,
went out into the forest to hunt. They
had not proceeded far when they met a Lion.
The Fox, seeing imminent danger, approached
the Lion and promised to contrive
for him the capture of the Ass if the Lion
would pledge his word not to harm the Fox.
Then, upon assuring the Ass that he would
not be injured, the Fox led him to a deep pit
and arranged that he should fall into it. The
Lion, seeing that the Ass was secured, immediately
clutched the Fox, and attacked the
Ass at his leisure.

Aesop's Fables - The Mountain in Labor

The Mountain in Labor

A MOUNTAIN was once greatly agitated.
Loud groans and noises were heard, and
crowds of people came from all parts to see
what was the matter. While they were assembled
in anxious expectation of some terrible
calamity, out came a Mouse. Don't
make much ado about nothing.